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Volume 107
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Recent progress on anode materials and their preparation for use in sodium ion batteries
Mahmood Alhajj a b *, Madzlan Aziz a c *
a Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
b Physics Department and Laser Centre, ISI-SIR (CsNano), Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
c Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Faculty of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
10.1016/j.partic.2025.10.017
Volume 107, December 2025, Pages 339-374
Received 16 September 2025, Revised 13 October 2025, Accepted 23 October 2025, Available online 1 November 2025, Version of Record 12 November 2025.
E-mail: alhajjmahmood2021@gmail.com; madzlan@utm.my
Highlights

• Growing interest in SIBs as a low-cost alternative to LIBs due to lithium scarcity and rising costs is examined.

• Key limitations in anode performance of SIBs due to sluggish Na+ kinetics and large ionic radius are highlighted.

• The Na+ storage mechanisms and structural evolution of various anode material classes are comprehensively reviewed.

• Recent strategies employed to enhance the efficiency and stability of anode materials in SIBs are critically analyzed.

• The role of machine learning and AI in advancing battery research and its challenges in data and validation are addressed.


Abstract

Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the dominant technology for secondary batteries due to their exceptional cycle life and superior energy density. However, for large-scale energy storage applications, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are considered a promising alternative owing to their abundant sodium resources, low cost, and relatively high energy density. SIBs display gorgeous application prospects as a superior alternative to extensively commercialized LIBs. Problems such as the low performance of suitable anode materials in large-scale SIBs, due to the large size and sluggish kinetics of Na+ have limited their development. So, further progress in SIBs performance is still needed in terms of fast-charging capability, cyclic stability, and power/energy densities. In this review, the latest progress in the preparation strategies and application challenges of SIBs is summarized, focusing on the fundamentals of the design principles and sodium storage mechanisms in various classes of anode materials including carbon-based, inorganic, organic, and MXene-derived systems. Structural and surface engineering techniques, electrochemical performance evaluation, machine learning (ML), and artificial intelligence (AI) are also discussed to elucidate ion storage mechanisms and accelerate anode material design for next-generation SIBs.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Sodium ion batteries; Anode; Energy storage; Na-storage mechanism; Machine learning; Artificial intelligence
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