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Volume 108
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Zhang, Q., Jiang, H., Sang, G., & Dang, Y. (2026). The shakedown behaviour of binary soil: A DEM study. Particuology, 108, 196-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.partic.2025.10.022
The shakedown behaviour of binary soil: A DEM study
Qi Zhang a, Haoran Jiang b, Guijie Sang c, Yike Dang d *
a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
b Civil Engineering Design Division, Kajima Corporation, Tokyo, Japan
c Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
d School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
10.1016/j.partic.2025.10.022
Volume 108, January 2026, Pages 196-206
Received 31 August 2025, Revised 26 October 2025, Accepted 28 October 2025, Available online 5 November 2025, Version of Record 3 December 2025.
E-mail: diryk0213@163.com; 4120122003@stu.xjtu.edu.cn
Highlights

• DEM simulations reveal cyclic shakedown behaviour of binary granular soils.

• Tangential contact anisotropy governs soil failure under cyclic loading.

• A simplified shakedown criterion is proposed for DEM-based soil analysis.


Abstract

Binary soils are widespread in natural deposits and are frequently subjected to cyclic loading. While laboratory tests have provided valuable insights into their overall mechanical behaviour, the underlying structural evolution remains largely unexplored due to experimental constraints. In this study, the discrete element method (DEM) is employed to investigate the deformation behaviour of binary soils under drained cyclic loading. A series of monotonic and cyclic biaxial tests were performed on soils with varying fines content, covering the transition from coarse-particle-controlled to fine-particle-controlled structures. To enhance computational efficiency in cyclic loading simulations, a shakedown framework was adopted. The results indicate that increasing fines content reduces the strength and stiffness of coarse-particle-controlled structures but enhances those of fine-particle-controlled structures. Micromechanical analyses of the stress–force–fabric relationship reveal that shakedown behaviour is governed by the anisotropy of tangential contact force (at): in loose specimens, shakedown is controlled by the residual at, whereas in dense specimens it is controlled by the peak at. This work establishes a link between the micro-response in monotonic biaxial tests and the macro-response in cyclic biaxial tests. Furthermore, based on the simulation results, a criterion is proposed for characterising the shakedown ranges of granular materials in DEM analyses.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Discrete element method; Cyclic loading; Binary soil; Shakedown theory; Fabric anisotropy
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