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Volume 109
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A key antagonistic effect in alkaline pretreatment of clay-type lithium ores and its targeted control for enhanced lithium enrichment
Ziliang Liu, Fuzhong Wu *, Xiaodong Lv, Xinyi Dai
Guizhou High-level Institution Key Laboratory of High-Performance Battery Materials, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
10.1016/j.partic.2025.12.013
Volume 109, February 2026, Pages 180-191
Received 22 September 2025, Revised 29 November 2025, Accepted 9 December 2025, Available online 2 January 2026, Version of Record 8 January 2026.
E-mail: gutwfz@163.com
Highlights

• Novel Alkali Residue Effect (ARE) governs pre-treatment efficacy trade-offs.

• Optimized process yields 4.35-fold lithium enrichment at a low temperature (90 °C).

• Selective etching of amorphous gangue enhances Li-bearing mineral reactivity.

• Techno-economic analysis projects a low operating cost of ∼US$81 per ton of ore.


Abstract

Clay-type lithium ores represent a vast, underexploited resource critical for future lithium supply, but their complex mineralogy hinders efficient processing. While alkaline pretreatment is a promising enrichment strategy, its optimization is hampered by elusive regulatory mechanisms. Here, we report a critical non-monotonic response where excessive pretreatment intensity paradoxically suppresses lithium recovery. We identify and verify that this response is governed by a key antagonistic mechanism, termed the Alkali Residue Effect (ARE), where residual alkaline species cause both physical dilution and chemical neutralization. Through response surface methodology (RSM) targeting the mitigation of ARE, we established an optimized processing window that achieves a 4.35-fold lithium enrichment (Li2O from 0.17 to 0.74 wt%). Microscopic analyses (SEM-EDS, XRD, XPS) confirm the optimized process selectively etches amorphous gangue, enhancing the reactivity of the Li-bearing mineral (cookeite). A techno-economic analysis projects a favorable operating cost of ∼US$81/ton. This study provides a new theoretical framework (ARE) for optimizing complex hydrometallurgical processes by balancing targeted reactions against unintended side effects.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Clay-type lithium ore; Alkaline pretreatment; Lithium enrichment; Alkali Residue Effect (ARE); Selective leaching; Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
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